The Shi

The Shi were also known as the gentry scholars. Initially, they came from the warrior caste. Over the years, the Shi slowly started to include aristocratic scholars and even educated bureaucracy. Access to books and knowledge was very limited and this meant a scholarly person was highly respected during this era.

The Gong

The Gong was the artisans and craftsmen. They had the skills to make objects of everyday use. They were the producers, much like farmers. But since they did not have any land, they never generated any revenue for the state.

These people had skills which they passed from one generation to another. They were generally more respected than the merchants. Some of them were very successful and even hired apprentices and laborers to increase their production.

The Nong

These were the peasant farmers and they were second to the Shi. The farmers were considered to be the producers of food which sustained the empire. They also contributed to state revenue by paying taxes. In a nation wracked by periodic famine, these farmers were seen as a very important and productive social class to the Ming Dynasty social structure.

The Shang

The Shang was the merchants and traders. They never produced anything and so they were looked down upon by society as people who lived off the labor of other hardworking people.

The Shang traded and transported food and goods made by the Gong and Nong. Most merchants bought more land to command more respect in this society. There was a popular belief that the merchants were only motivated by their greed and they never contributed to the greater good of the society. Later, commercialization increased and the wealthy merchants became part of the landholding gentry. Each and every class was entitled to different legal privileges.

The Forbidden City was also established during this time. Apart from the great achievements, the people during this era were also very religious.

Taoism and Buddhism

This era had several religious inclinations, but the most dominant religious beliefs were Taoism and Buddhism. Some people believed in having a very harmonious relationship with nature. During the era, the reading of scriptures and other practices were done to establish harmony with nature.

Other people believed in Buddha. In fact, some Chinese people spent their entire life based on Buddha’s teachings. This religion played a major role in shaping the way people throughout the region thought.

Confucianism

The other type of Ming Dynasty religion was known as the Confucianism. With this philosophy, people believed that if they behaved well, those below would follow their examples. This was important because if the government trusted people and gave them freedom, then the people would trust the government more.

Confucianism was the main purpose people achieved harmony, which was one of the most important social values. This was a religion of trust; people trusted each other and therefore asked each other for help.

Christianity

Christianity was also spreading a lot in China during the Ming Dynasty era. Christianity arrived along with Jesuit missionaries, such as the Italian named Matteo Ricci.

Ricci was able to convince Chinese people in the upper class to join him through the advanced Western technology he had introduced to them. Some of the Chinese people joined Christianity. Christianity and other religions during this era contributed a great deal to what the Chinese people are today.

Soldiers by Birth

The system of inherited soldiers had an inherent advantage. The causalities could easily be replaced. In case a soldier died in battle, his family was expected to provide one of its able-bodied members as a replacement.

If the family did not provide a replacement, it would lose its livelihood and often become beggars. In some cases, Ming Dynasty soldiers were even treated as cannon fodder.

Military Composition

The Ming infantry had a company that consisted of 112 men. This was similar to their European counterparts. The men were essentially grouped in administrative units that were made up of ordinary and specialist soldiers and another 40% were armed with long-range weapons, such as crossbows, bows, and firearms of some kind. The remaining 20% bore swords and shields.

Military Equipment

The Ming dynasty cavalry was not heavily equipped. They only had archers on horses and lancers with shields. At first, this tactic paid off, but later, the advantage greatly declined due to better strategies adopted by their enemies. The cavalry carried sabers but never used them. The horse archers were ineffective and vulnerable at close range. The lancers relied on charging to break enemy formations and retreated if they failed.

Military Flaws

One of the notable features of the Ming Dynasty military was its centralized planning. The entire army would be re-equipped and re-trained for a certain campaign. This caused the military to have lots of bureaucracy and therefore did not respond quickly and effectively to an immediate threat. Using troops for non-military purposes further reduced their battle readiness and military prowess.

Paper and Printing

One of the reasons that the Ming Dynasty was so prosperous and successful was due to the invention of woodblock color printing. This invention surpasses all the previous printing techniques of the earlier eras.

Woodblock carving and wood movable type were all enhanced to perfection during this era. Massive production of documents was also made very easy and possible because of the invention of the two-color printing process.

The Yongle Encyclopedia

The Yongle Encyclopediawas the first of its kind and it contains a wide coverage of subjects such as art, agriculture, history, astronomy, drama, medicine, technology and religion. This makes it the world’s largest known general encyclopedia from ancient times and the first to be written on earth. This was one of the greatest Ming Dynasty inventions and was introduced in 1403. This inspired today’s encyclopedia.

Bristle Toothbrush

This invention occurred around 1498, during the reign of the Hongzhi Emperor of the Ming Dynasty. This was mass-produced in 1780, several years after the fall of the Ming Dynasty.

Before the toothbrush was invented, people used sticks and flared edges called chew sticks. After this, pig bristles were used. The toothbrush innovation has become an important part of modern society. Today, almost everyone in the world uses a toothbrush.

Ship Rudders

Another great invention during the Ming Dynasty was ship rudders. This innovation in marine life made the steering of large ships easier and also served as a guide to sailors as they traversed the deep waters.

The ship rudders and other Ming Dynasty inventions have swept through the ages all over the world. Today, these contributions are widely used, leaving a mark in the history of China and the entire world.

The Censorate

In 1430, the Censorate, which was a branch of the centralized government, was re-established and institutionalized. The people in this branch of government were called censors and they were very powerful bureaucrats who had direct access to the Emperor.

The provincial administrators were overseen by a travelling inspector who was sent from the Censorate. They had the power to impeach officials for dereliction of duty.

Grand Secretariat

The civil administration of China remained unchanged for about 2,000 years. The Ming Dynasty government appointed Grand Secretaries, who were basically mid-level officials, to help the Emperor with paperwork. The secretariat coordinated between the six different ministries.

Six Ministries

The Six Ministries were responsible for various administrative functions of the state, such as Revenue, Personnel, War, Rites, Public Works and Justice. The Ministry of Personnel handled all matters relating to government employees such as appointment, assessment of work and promotions.

The Ministry of Revenue was in charge of collecting taxes, state revenues, and currency. The Ministry of Rites was in charge of armed forces and the courier system. The Ministry of Justice was responsible for the judicial and penal process, but it never had any jurisdiction over the Censorate.

The Ministry of Works was in charge of all government construction projects and maintenance of roads. They were also responsible for the standardization of weights and measures in the country.

During this time, China had one of the most efficient bureaucracies in the entire world. Merit was valued more than connections. This ensured that the Ming Dynasty government was efficient and that China prospered.

Apart from this, printing technology helped in recording detailed maps and other books. Many maps survived and have helped in giving a lot of information about geographers and cartographers during the Ming era.

Li Zemin’s Shengjiao Guangbei Tu

This is one amongst the great pieces in cartography. It is based on The Mongolsby the famous Li Zemin. The map was lost but fortunately, derivative works survived. Other Ming Dynasty maps that followed were also based on the maps created by Li Zemin.

Qingjun’s Gianglun Jiangli Tu

The Gianglun Jiangli Tuwas a map created by Zen Monk Quingjun, who lived in the early days of the Ming Dynasty. The map did not survive, but a modified version survived. This map later included Ming names after Yan Jie updated it. The map also included detailed information on Mongolia, Southeast Asia, and the sea routes.

Other Maps

In the later days of the Ming Dynasty, more than 40 maps were printed. These published maps had more advanced grid references and systematic methods of representing rivers, mountains, cities, towns, borders and roads. Some of these maps showed sea routes along China coasts, Southeast Asia, Africa and India.

Geographical Features

The Forbidden City was built during Ming Dynasty. There were five bridges for the five Confucian virtues: righteousness, benevolence, proper conduct, wisdom and trustworthiness. Today, this city is still the largest ancient complex in the world.

To the south, there is a stream of water that serves as the Daoist requirement of having water to the south of a very important complex building. Generally, the Ming Dynasty geography flourished and was well developed. Many maps survived, leaving a lot of information of Chinese geography and history from the Ming Dynasty.

Manufacturing

The manufacturing industry became advanced and was involved in producing numerous products during the Ming Dynasty era. Iron was also produced at a very high rate compared to other dynasties.

The dynasty used Han policies and privatized many industries, including salt and tea. The economy was propelled by very powerful and wealthy traders.

Ming rulers eliminated forced labor practices and brought change in this industry through paying wages to many labors in the factories. During this era, around 300 factories were involved in making pots and were all run by the waged labor forces.

Agriculture

Farmers practiced the crop rotation method while plowing was made easier by water. This greatly improved agricultural output. All this formed the basis for the Ming market economy. Depending on the type of soil in a certain region, crops such as tea and fruits were grown.

The market economy also made it more possible for the farmers to cultivate large pieces of land for cash crop production. Cash crops were important to agriculture because the land quality was decreasing and the population was rising. Generally, there were three types of markets in this era – rural market, urban-rural market, and national market.

Trade

Commerce, trade, and investment thrived during the Ming era because of the liberalized economy. The Chinese created canals for irrigation, roads, bridges and transportation. The trade of this dynasty got as far as Europe which opened gates for the economic development. Actually, overseas trade brought about 300 million silver taels to China.

China’s Flourishing Culture

Under the Ming Dynasty, Chinese culture flourished. The leaders of the Ming Dynasty rediscovered China’s own rich cultural heritage, which had suffered so long under the influence of the Khitan, the Mongols, and the Jurchen.

There was a boom in different cultural aspects, such as poetry, literature, music and Chinese operas. Jiangnan (Chieng-nan), the region south of the Yangzi River, was the center of arts and several traditional artifacts were preserved there. Ming leaders revived a sense of cultural identity and respect for Chinese artifacts and craftsmanship.

Painting

The Ming Dynasty era saw the emergence of three different schools of painting – the Che, which focused on the formal approach of the Sung; the Wu, which appealed to the intelligentsia; and the aim of the Eccentric group was freedom of expression and spontaneity. Narrative painting, with a wider color range and a much complex composition, was quite popular during this era as well.

The famous painters during the Ming era include Ni Zan, Dong Qichang, and the Four Masters of the Ming Dynasty – Qui Ying, Tang Yin, Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming.

Music and Drama

During the Ming Dynasty, regional operas evolved and soft southern melodies became more popular. The most popular script of Ming dynasty is the Pipa ji, The Story of the Lute written by Gao Ming. Kunshan’ style of music was renewed, and regarded as the most melodious and romantic musical style. During that era, kunku (an ancient type of Chinese opera characterized by long notes and detailed ornamentation) became the popular theatrical form, which was patronized by scholars and the educated elite class. Kunku involved complex acting techniques, delicate singing, and constant dance-like movements.

An emphasis was placed on visual impact, with magnificent garments being worn by the richer classes. However, it was considered vulgar to take this to excess: a graceful, flowing look was considered to be the height of sartorial elegance.

Men’s and Women’s Clothing

For men, most Ming Dynasty garments were characterized by the use of circular collars and wide sleeves. It was also the usual practice for men to wear a head covering similar to a modern chador. Black silk ribbons and a drooping strap were usually added.

Men frequently wore tunics, which were knee length with relatively short sleeves. The finest clothing was made of silk, which was seen as a symbol of status and wealth. Since many Ming garments were rather thin, padded over-jackets were worn during the colder months.

Women’s garments had narrow sleeves and three collars, together with pleated skirts. These were something of an innovation at the time. Color preference was for lighter shades, especially in the early part of the period. Women also wore intricately embroidered capes over their shoulders.

Accessories and Proportions

The use of buttons increased in clothing during the Ming Dynasty, with those of a circular shape becoming increasingly popular as time went on. The fashion also became for buttons to be made of metal rather than alternatives such as ivory or jade.

The Song Dynasty of a century earlier was characterized by symmetrical collars, but in the Ming period, these became circular. Skirts were worn so as to show only a small part of their length, thanks to the popularization of long over-jackets. Many of these styles remained in ordinary use until the start of the modernization of China during the Qing Dynasty.

Porcelain and Lacquer

The decoration of porcelain reached a new level of sophistication with glazed designs showing scenes of immense intricacy, at times coming close to the level of detail found in paintings.

Similarly, lacquer carvings approached the height of their beauty and complexity during the Ming Dynasty. Wealthy families often displayed these items as a sign of their status and to show off their respect for the arts. Furniture, decorations, and even writing materials were chosen for their aesthetic impact.

Famous Ming Dynasty Painters

Painting styles in the Ming Dynasty were evolutionary rather than revolutionary, with clear influences being seen from the previous Yuan and Song periods. A number of China’s most famous painters lived during the Ming era. Among these were Qiu Yeng, Wen Zhengming, Ni Zan, and Shen Zhou.

Their works were in such great demand that it was possible for the best artists to obtain a comfortable living simply from commissions. Existing paintings also sold for high prices to collectors. One account states that Qiu Ying received six pounds of silver as payment for the painting of a long scroll marking a wealthy man’s mother’s birthday.

Ceramic Arts

The main center for sculpted porcelain production during the Ming Dynasty was Jingdezhen, although Dehua was also important, especially in the export trade. By the later Ming period, Chinese exports were becoming increasingly important to the empire’s economy.

White was the dominant color for artistic ceramics, although blue became widely used as the era wore on. Other colors were occasionally employed, but the blue and white combination became characteristic of Chinese porcelain design. To increase the desirability and decorative appeal of ceramic sculptures, precious substances such as ivory and jade were also widely used.