Aristocracy and Bureaucrats

Next came the aristocracy, whose power and influence waxed and waned according to the emperor in power. The aristocratic class was more influential in cases where it had itself provided the emperor; where the leader had emerged from an existing regal family they had less of a say.

Bureaucrats formed the next class, which was sometimes divided into two, with scholars and learned men being granted a higher status than mere functionaries.

Lower Classes

The sizable class of eunuchs, who acted as servants to the emperor and his household, formed a central class. Religious officials came next, with peasants following. Tang society was relatively unusual in that peasants were not considered the class of the lowest social status. Instead, the lowest free men were traders and artisans.

Slaves were not generally considered to have any social standing at all. Members of each class could easily be identified, since by law they were required to wear only the possessions and clothing that the emperor had decreed suitable for them. Punishments for breaking these laws could be severe.

Status of Women

During the Tang period, women were allowed a little more freedom than in the preceding eras. In particular, they were allowed to go into the priesthood for the first time. Even so, life did not change much for ordinary women; it was largely those who were already close to the centers of power who felt the effects of this change in official attitudes.

Courtesans were an accepted and respected part of Tang life, and their special status gave them access to debates usually only attended by aristocratic men. Moving up the social scale was not easy, but was possible to a slightly greater extent than in other periods thanks to the opening up of imperial examinations.

Importance of Poetry

To this day, Tang Dynasty poetry played a key part in the daily life of the Chinese society and it is considered to be the absolute culmination in Chinese poetry. In order to pass civil service examinations, scholars were required to master skill in the composition of poetry.

According to the pre-eminent collection of Tang poetry entitled Complete Tang Poems( Quan Tangshi in Chinese), there were around 49,000 surviving poems divided into 900 volumes and written by a total of 2,200 authors.

Characteristics of Tang Poetry

Tang poetry was strongly connected to religion and had a major impact on the Song Dynasty poetry and even on world literature. The most popular Tang poetry styles included ”jintishi,” used by poets such as Cui Hao and Wang Wei and ”gushi,” used by Li Bai.

The former poetical style is characterized by seven Chinese characters per line, an antithesis between the second and the third couplets, and eight-line stanzas. Poetry contests were very popular and Tang poems were often recited in Classical Chinese, which was spoken during that era.

Famous Tang Poets

Both poets belong to the High Tang period, also known as Golden Tang and their poems mirror the extravagant lives of the imperial court as well as contradictory feelings prompted by the Tang military campaigns.

Li Bai authored around 1,000 extant poems and 34 of them are included in the popular anthology 300 Tang Poemscompiled by the Chinese scholar Sun Zhu. The most famous poems written by Li Bai include Quiet Night Thought, which features in school texts in present day China as well as Waking From Drunkenness on a Spring Day”, a poem which celebrates the pleasure of drinking wine.

His friend, Du Fu, often referred to as the Poet-Sage, wrote nearly 1,500 poems with themes such as history, military tactics, painting and morality and written in various registers such as colloquial, allusive, and literary. Around two-thirds of his poems are written under the stylized poetic form known as ”lushi,” which was rich in parallelisms.

The fact that people were interested in pursuing knowledge about religion was something of a challenge to the long-standing and generally accepted philosophy known as Confucianism. Unlike modern-day situations in which beliefs and religions clash, the Confucian scholars’ response to this challenge was to revise some aspects of Confucianism to embrace Buddhism and Taoism. This revised version was called Neo-Confucianism.

Religions Influencing Each Other

In today’s Western society, we have become accustomed to people of various religions coming near to blows over their differences. However, this was not the case among the religious people of the Tang Dynasty.

The boundaries between the religions were flexible and allowed for interaction and competition. The religions were inclusive of one another with Taoists and Buddhists borrowing rather freely from one another’s terminology, writings, and philosophies. Both used Indian sutras, which they translated from Sanskrit.

Additionally, they adopted practices from one another. For example, Taoists began to incorporate celibacy as a practice for some members of their priesthood due to influence from both Buddhist and Christian practices.

Freedom of Choice

While priests of each of the commonly practiced Tang Dynasty religions would clearly choose a belief system to follow and stick with it, followers of these religions might move freely from one to another without finding these choices to be in conflict. Priests, of course, had to stay with their religions of choice in order to attain consistent support from patrons, but common believers were not bound in this way.

For this reason, it was common for believers to participate in a number of different religious practices in daily life and mix-and-match deities from Buddhist and Taoist beliefs and Christianity with equal enthusiasm. A person might attend Buddhist temple, make sacrifices to Taoist deities, and keep a cross on the wall without feeling any sense of conflict.

Inventions in Engineering

The first clockwork mechanism in the world which kept time by counting the number of oscillations was invented by an engineer known as Yi-Xing.

The mechanism mainly consists of a waterwheel that rotates the armillary sphere which is connected to a bell that is mechanically timed in order for it to strike every hour. The clock also has a clepsydra clock and the entire clock is known as the astronomical clock.

Several mechanical inventions were also discovered in this era of the Tang Dynasty. On the other hand, one of the most famous mechanical inventions was the wine server. The device was carved out of iron and mounted on a lacquered or wooden frame. It consisted of a hydraulic pump that helps draw the wine out of the metal-headed faucet.

Developments in Medicine

A medicine author in the Tang era discovered that diabetic people had excessive sugar in their urine. On the other hand, discovery for the treatment of goiter was also made during this era. They also found that the thyroid glands of pigs and sheep can be used to cure goiter successfully.

Gun Powder

In the era of the Tang Dynasty, a famous alchemist mixed 15 parts of charcoal, 25 parts of saltpeter, and 10 parts of sulfur. Although the resulting combination did not contain life threatening properties, it exploded instantaneously when exposed to an open flame. This led to the invention or discovery of gun powder.

First Gas Cylinder

The first all-natural gas cylinder known to man was invented in the era of the Tang Dynasty. The cylinders were mainly bamboo tubes which were used to transport the gas around several kilometers.

Air Conditioning

The Tang Dynasty saw the invention of an early air cooling system in 747 when a cool hall for the emperor was constructed in the imperial palace. The device that was used is commonly known as Tang-Yulin and it had fan wheels that were powered by water and functioned like an air conditioner. The cooling system also included high rising jet-streams of clean mountain water.

Early Economy

During the rule of Emperor Gaosu, one of the first leaders of the Tang Dynasty, agriculture decreased significantly. He was the one to implement the first reforms that would evenly distribute land and help optimize production and improve efficiency. This was also a direct consequence of the use of new tools and methods to farm the land. However, the biggest contribution to production increase came from irrigation.

Governmental Reforms

With the even distribution of land and decreased food scarcity, the government focused on saving money and food by creating a surplus. To achieve this, the governmental staff was reduced across all regions. This led to a surplus of food and revenue. At the same time, having a prosperous population also improved tax collection as more people were able to afford to pay their debt to the emperor.

Trade and Commerce

The Tang Dynasty greatly supported commerce. Trade routes were established internally and with neighboring countries like India. Goods like jade, silk, porcelain, tea and spices were being sold to provinces and foreigners. This increased the population’s wealth which was now able to pay its taxes.

All of this income helped the government keep the costs of war under control. Even if the Tang Dynasty waged wars and expanded its borders close to the Persian borders, the prosperity of the Chinese people was not affected.

Decline of the Economy

Towards the end of the Tang Dynasty, the government’s efforts to eliminate Buddhism affected the economy. This created conflicts between the Chinese and foreign traders. Also, a sudden change in attitude towards outsiders decreased exports. After hundreds of years of trading with foreigners, the borders were closed and outsiders were no longer welcome.

Art in the Tang Dynasty

During the Tang Dynasty, emphasis was made in developing art. The Tang era was an age of figure painters who created new styles of ceramics that were bold and colorful with variegated glazes.

Potters developed new techniques that included the use of “sancai,” which is a type of decoration that used three colors that mixed together for a unique look. Decorated bronze mirrors and white porcelain were also famous at that time as were sculptures of Buddha.

Poetry in the Tang Dynasty

The Tang era was a golden period for poetry and art. It is during this time that poetry became an integral part of the Chinese culture. The open policies of the Tang dynasty attracted people from many foreign lands to China, bringing various cultural elements into the society.

During the Tang Dynasty, one of the most distinguished cultural achievements came in form of Tang poems. A number of excellent poets appeared during the Tang era. Themes of their poems were varied, including life in peaceful village fields, life at frontiers, imaginative fancies or historic affairs. The literary skills of Tang poets reached heights that had never been surpassed in Chinese literature history.

Music

The influx of various ethnic groups and amalgamation of cultures made the music during the Tang Dynasty rich and unique. Musical instruments and musical forms from Iran, India, and Central Asia brought significant transformation in music during this era.

Musicians were given greater importance during the Tang era. Some of the popular instruments during those times included bells, stone chimes, flutes, drums and zithers. The openness to other cultures also led to adoption of western dances and songs during the Tang era.

Reasons for Success

One of the factors that led to success of the Tang Dynasty government was the great reforms it instituted through modifying and creating the popular Sui legal code.

Basically, this was complicated but quite simple to understand certain set of laws. The rules were all specific and detailed about what was allowed in this society and everybody knew what was expected from them.

Three Departments

The government of the Tang Dynasty had three basic departments that came up with laws and policies. The framework of rules and laws were all administered by a group that was called the Six Ministries. These ministries were military, personnel administration, finance, justice, rites and the public works.

This system worked very well and it actually outlived the Tang Dynasty, which collapsed in the year 907. The government system was actually modeled upon which every dynasty based its own systems. This was also widely used by other kingdoms and countries, including Korea and Vietnam.

Education

Education was another factor that helped in the success of Tang Dynasty government. The leaders felt that an educated nation did not pose any threat to the authority but formed a foundation to forming a stable and prosperous society. During this era, there was also an obsession with keeping of records and accounting of numerous areas of life and business. The deep strong layers of accountability strengthened this government.

Collapse of the Dynasty

Even after having great designed systems, the government still had some flaws. The Tang Dynasty eventually collapsed due to various reasons. Some of these plans were just old bad luck like natural disasters. Internal corruption and the incompetent rulers also fastened the death of the famous Tang era.

The Tang Dynasty mainly stretched from the Korean Peninsula to the Tarim Basin and from the Mongolian steppe south to modern Vietnam. The vast territory of the Tang Dynasty included the capital city of Chang’an, which is modern-day Xian. Tang Dynasty geography was well documented. At that time, Chang’an had several secondary capitals and was also considered the biggest city on earth.

Capitals of the Tang Dynasty

While the main capital of the Tang Dynasty was Chang’an, there were several other capitals as well. Hezhong was the central capital which is modern-day Yongji. Shanxi, now known as Luoyang, was the eastern capital, and it is still known as Luoyang, Henan of modern China.
Moreover, the modern-day city of Fengxiang, Shaanxi, was the western capital and is still known as Fengxiang today. The northern capital was known as Taiyuan which is modern city of Taiyuan, Shaanxi. Lastly, the southern capital was known as Chengdu, but was later changed to Jiangling. The southern capital is the modern-day Sichuan (Jiangling).

Circuit Divisions

Initially, the entire dynasty was divided into 10 circuits (Dao). However, this number was increased later to a total of 15 circuits. Eventually, these prefectural seats (circuits) included:

1. Jingji, which is in southern Shaanxi of the modern China

2. Guannei is located in the modern northern Shaanxi

3. Duji is the modern western Hinan

4. Henan is located in Shandong and Henan of the modern China

5. Hendong is located in the modern city of Shaanxi

6. Hebei is located in the modern cities of Beijing, Hebei, and Tianjin

7. Longyou is located at Ninxia and Gansu of modern China

8. Shannan-Dong is the modern-day Hubei

9. Shannan-Xi is located at Chongqing and Sichuan in modern China

10. Huainan is located across northern Anhuii and northern Jiangsu

11. Jiangnan-Dong spreads across southern Anhui, southern Jiangsu, Fujian, Shanghai, and Zhejiang

12. Jiangnan-Xi is located at eastern Hunan and also Jiangxi in modern China

13. Qianzhong is located at Guizhou and western Hunan

14. Jiannan is located in southern Sichuan

15. Lingnan spreads across Hainan, Guangdong, and Guangxi in the modern-day China

The Tang Dynasty geography was spread across much of what is China today. Moreover, it is considered a high point in the Chinese civilization.

The Tang Dynasty military was a great military power that used strategic techniques to expand the nation’s borders farther than ever before. Tai Cong, the son of Li Yuan, is known as the military genius behind the early Tang Dynasty’s success.

Military Weapons Used

The soldiers of the Tang Dynsaty used several types of handheld weapons, long-range weapons, and defense weapons to fight with their enemies. This included the bow and arrow, pike, sword, throwing daggers, armor and shields.

Technological Advances

The military might of the Tang Dynasty was a result of the economic prosperity and advancement in science and technology. The military strength was built up during the era of Emperor Taizong, who was adept at military strategies and launched several expeditions against various ethnic groups.

During the reign of Emperor Taizong, Tang’s military domination was spread across northeastern China to the southwestern Korean Peninsula. In the north, Tang’s domination also reached the Mongolian Plateau.

Various Divisions

The Tang Dynasty had a military based on the Fubing system, which involved using the local militia that could be mobilized promptly during wars. This system was originated by the Wei Dynasty, but the Tang Dynasty adopted it.

The military was divided into multiple small military units. The militiamen were allocated pockets of land. Officers were provided with extended commissions. Regular soldiers used to report for duty at the provincial capital on rotating basis.

During the Tang Dynasty, the military units were under the direct control of the Ministry of the Army, which had a total of 634 such military units, known as Zhechongfu. Each of these units consisted of 800 to 1200 soldiers and was sub-divided into tuan of 300 soldiers, dui of 50 soldiers and huo of 10 soldiers.

However, the Tang Dynasty moved towards a system of regular full-time army units in the 8th century and did away with the Fubing system.

Ordinary Chinese were more likely to wear clothes made from linen and wool, while poor peasants fashioned clothing from animal skins. There were strict laws regulating who was allowed to wear specific types of clothing, which extended to the jewels used to decorate them.

The Confucian Code

The traditional code of Confucius still reigned supreme in China at this time. Women in particular found themselves significantly constrained in what they could wear. Hufu, a fashion based on that of the western Tartars, was very popular at the height of the Tang period, though this weakened as the dynasty neared its end.

By the year 900, women mostly wore loose-fitting, wide-sleeved garments. Even ordinary women’s robes would have sleeves of as much as four or five feet in width. Men’s clothing was still based to an extent on practicality, especially where horse-riding was necessary. Imperial servants, however, wore color-coded garb, with the shades for each class laid down by the Emperor Gaozong.

Accessories

In addition to being required to wear specific hues and types of clothing, civil servants in Tang China also carried certain accessories according to their rank. High-ranking officials were allowed to wear a knife or sword, while those in the next class down sported a jade belt.

Lower-ranking men also wore belts, but of gold and silver. Ordinary citizens were prohibited from wearing anything more than a small knife of iron or bronze. Hats made of bamboo were often worn by women, on top of a coiled “cloud bun” hairstyle. It was considered best for the temples to be covered by hair.