Cao Cao

The factions that were fighting for the throne were made up of warlords, various nobles, and court officials. One of the warlords, Cao Cao, started to unify the empire when Emperor Xian was reigning. He later escorted Emperor Xian back to Xu and a new capital was formed there.

Cao Cao started to rule this empire with Emperor Xian as the emperor. However, his attempts to unify this empire were ruined when two warlords leading southern forces met with the Han army in a battle that is known as the Battle of Red Cliffs.

Battle of Red Cliffs

The Battle of Red Cliffs was fought during the winter of 208 and 209 A.D. The battle was between the northern forces of Cao Cao against the allied forces of warlord Sun Quan and warlord Liu Bei. Quan and Liu united their southern forces against Cao Cao. However, the Cao Cao soldiers were far greater in number. The Han army was defeated in this battle and Cao Cao was forced to retreat to his home base.

Three Kingdoms

In 220 A.D., the Han Dynasty formally ended. This happened when Cao Cao’s son, Cao Pi, overthrew Xian. When Cao Pi took over the office, was made the “King of Wei” without any formal authorization to do so. He turned down the throne three times, but eventually accepted it.

After one year, Liu Bei made himself the ruler of Chengdu and created the state of Shu Nan. In 229 A.D., Sun Quan also made himself the emperor of Wu. All of these activities started a new period in China called the Three Kingdoms.

This was the period that was characterized by economic affluence, cultural consolidation, and key technological advances. More significantly, this dynasty was distinguished by the rigid Han Dynasty social structure.

Top of the Social Class

The society during the Han dynasty was highly structured with a clear definition of social class. At the top of the social class structure was the emperor. The people were not allowed to address the present emperor by name or else they could be punished.

The most influential relative of the emperor was the wife of the earlier emperor or empress dowager. The empress had the power to appoint a new emperor and issue edicts in case the present emperor died without a designated heir. There were also nobles present during many periods of the Han Dynasty. Eunuchs and regents were positions which were given to very few officials during the later years of the dynasty.

Second Tier of Social Class

The second tier of the social structure was the peasants and farmers. Their social status was above that of laborers even though they were below the wealthier landowners. The wealthy basically depended on them for their products and as a result, they were not typically looked down upon by their fellow gentry men.

Third Class Citizens

The third class of citizens was mainly the craftsmen and artisans. They were responsible for making important items like knives and swords as well as creating luxury goods for wealthy people. Nonetheless, their status is lower compared to that of farmers even though they are still permitted to wear good outfits and ride on horses and carriages.

Merchants were found in the third tier along with servants and commoners. They were seen as lowly scholars and the registered merchants wore white as an indication of their low status. Lastly, slaves made up 1% of the Han Dynasty’s whole population and they could be owned privately or they could be state-owned. The Han Dynasty social structure actually greatly influenced China’s social structure long after its end.

Just like all other dynasties, religion was very important in shaping rules and regulations. Technology and art also developed during this time, and the influences of the Han Dynasty religion continued long after this era came to an end. Different types of religious practices dominated China during this period.

Ancestor Worship

This form of worship was widely spread in the country long before the Han Dynasty started. However, ancestor worship continued to be a popular practice during this dynasty. The emperor worshiped his ancestors through expensive burials.

Families in this country made ritual sacrifices to the deities, spirits, and ancestors. It was always a tradition for the emperor to go all the way and climb Mount Tai to give offerings to both Heaven and Earth.

Taoism

Taoism was considered the main religion during the Han Dynasty. This religion was founded during this era. Chinese people regularly held Taoist ceremonies to worship and for other religious purposes. This practice was characterized by a belief for opposites, such as “there is no love without hate.”

Buddhism

Buddhism was also one major religion in the entire country during the Han Dynasty. This was after its arrival during the first century CE. This religion was believed to be brought by different travelers who used the Silk Road from the northern part of India.

Confucianism

Confucianism was more of great philosophy than a religion in Han Dynasty. However, this philosophy ruled China for close to 2000 years as the country embraced Confucianism during this era.

Despite the Han Dynasty religion, Confucianism became one amongst the most crucial ideological beliefs in this era. There were also other primitive religions practiced by the minorities. All these religions helped shape this dynasty into what it was.

Due to these threats, the Han Dynasty military had a duty to keep the empire and its people safe. Most of these threats came from the nomadic confederations, such as Xiongnu in the North.

Army Recruitment

Armies during the early periods of the Han era were recruited through conscription, which is the obligatory recruitment of people for military services. When a young man turned 23 years, he was required to undergo one year of training and one year of service as a non-professional soldier. Later, the minimum age for conscription was lowered to 20.

During the Eastern Han period, the system for conscription for the military was altered. As long as a person could pay commutable taxes, conscription could be avoided. This resulted in the army being comprised of many volunteers.

Training

Training for the military was done in the infantry, calvary, or the navy. When a trainee became a soldier in active service, he was assigned to one of the three posts during that time, which were a king’s court, the frontier or under the Minister of the Guards in the capital city.

Weapons

Military forces of this dynasty used very powerful weapons. Swords were favored by most soldiers. Developments in iron casting during this era made it possible for them to produce much stronger swords. Traditional crossbow making was also improved and this made it more accurate and powerful. Before long, the army started to adapt to stirrups to gain greater balance while riding horses.

The Han Dynasty military was very powerful. Due to this power, the army was able to get rid of many enemies of China and also enabled its influence to spread over large areas across Asia. This also opened gates for increased trading and revenue.

During the Han Dynasty, there were many inventions that came into being and they were great to both the Chinese society and people internationally.

Paper

One of the best and most innovative inventions in the Han Dynasty was the paper making procedure. Papermaking was invented during the Han period by Eunuch Cai Lun, who was the person recognized for making this invention known. His procedure used mulberry bark as the major ingredient. This helped make the process easier, and the finished product came out smoother and lighter for easier writing.

Cast Iron Tools

Secondly, there was the invention of cast iron tools. It was during the Han Dynasty that cast iron processing was greatly improved. This led to better weapons, domestic wares, and tools. More significantly, it allowed for creation of new agricultural tools. Cast iron tools also made farming easier and more efficient, which in turn increased agricultural tax revenue for the Chinese.

The Loom

In addition, this dynasty invented the loom, which helped set the tone for the silk weaving and trade during this era. The science of weaving also gave way to the creation of the Silk Road. This actually brought in a great deal of revenue for the people of the Han Dynasty.

Other Contributions

Some of the lesser known contributions that developed during the Han Dynasty include the invention of the wheelbarrow and the seismograph. Additionally, stirrups on horses were also used for the first time during this period.

The people of the Han Dynasty actually pioneered some of the most vital advancements in the history of humans.

Emperor

The head of the Han government was the emperor. He was in charge of creating laws and commanding the armed forces. He also served as a chief executive official.

The dynasty’s imperial government was actually patterned after the preceding Qin Dynasty. One central control was also established which meant that the emperors had total control over all of China. The Emperor’s powers were unlimited so they were the most powerful people in the land.

Governmental Structure

The emperors had three councilors of state – the Chancellor over Masses, the Imperial Counselor, and the Grand Commandant. The counselor’s main responsibility was drafting the government budget, conduct necessary disciplinary procedures for the government officials, and to command the military.

There were nine ministers and each of them was assigned to head one specialized ministry. During the early years, imperial princes were made kings. These princes were given their own territories which they finally passed on to their sons after their death. This continued until the bloodline ended. The system was later eliminated by the emperor.

Local Government

The local government was composed of a province, commandery, counties and district. During the early Han period, only twelve provinces remained and each one was controlled by one governor appointed by the central government. The governors evaluated different officials based on their competence, honesty, and obedience.

The commanderies were composed of counties. A county was the smallest division in this era to have centrally appointed official. Just like any other aspects of the Han dynasty, the system of government went on throughout the history of China.

Western Han Dynasty

During the period of the Western Han Dynasty, the capital city was located in Chang’an. The area was administered in regions with subordinate princedoms and commanderies.

Major areas of the principal fiefdoms are currently known as the provinces of Jiangsu, Hebei, and Shandong. The kings were appointed and given a kingdom to administer. The capital region was called Sili and the main commandery unit was known as the Jingzhao government.

Han Dynasty geography was expanded during Emperor Han Wudi’s reign. The expansion first took place after the defeat of Xiongnu. After this, Chinese armies advanced into the Gansu province in North Korea. These expansions included Guangzhou and the Yunnan provinces and the northern area of current Vietnam.

The Western Han military was sent to the northern neighbors to conquer the nomad confederation enemies and also expand their territories.

The southern part of the Korean peninsula was also taken under the Three Han tribes. At the time of this shift from the Western and the Eastern Han era, the governmental structure established under the former empire was retained. However, there were some changes introduced by the new empire.

Eastern Han Dynasty

During this era, the capital moved to the city of Luoyang. The administration area of the Western regions shifted to Qiuci while the dependent non-Chinese kingdoms were installed in the border regions. Unfortunately, numerous rebellions, such as infamous the Yellow Turban Rebellion, led to the downfall of the Han Dynasty.

Despite being overthrown, some facts such as those mentioned above still contribute to the legend in the Han dynasty. In the end, Han Dynasty geography still stands as a testament to the might of this former superpower.

The economy was defined by population growth, industry growth, and the growth of trade and nationalization. New inventions and growth of art also helped to increase the amount of trade during this time.

Taxation and Social Class

During the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the economy was in bad shape. This was due to bad policies of the previous regime. Apart from this, heavy taxes were imposed on the poor and the construction of the Great Wall was also affecting China’s economy. Emperors of the Han Dynasty decided to lower the taxes that were imposed on the poor.

Since this dynasty heavily relied on the production output of peasants, the government eliminated taxes on small land owners and then imposed heavier taxes on merchants. The government also confiscated land from nobles, which encouraged peasants and other farmers to plant more.

Crafts and Industries

The government also nationalized salt and iron industries. This restricted industrialist powers. With this, the peasants who were employed by merchants in salt and iron workshops could then go back to farming and therefore increase the agriculture tax revenue. Efficient farming was also made possibly by the development of better iron tools.

The Silk Trade

The greatest contributor to the Han Dynasty’s economy was the silk trade. The invention of the loom enabled silk to be produced and traded to western people through the Silk Road. Actually, silk was even used as a currency and a tribute to the nomads of the northwestern steppe.

However, during the later years of this era, political and economic crises started to affect the dynasty. The government, in turn, became heavily decentralized which eventually led to the downfall of the Han economy.

This period was common for the rich intellectual, cultural and political heritage which it left behind. The culture of Han dynasty is the solid evidence of great things that Chinese people achieved during this period.

The Arts

The arts began gaining status during the Eastern Han Dynasty when painting and calligraphy were not being seen as only ways of making letters and signs. Due to the spread of pottery, the field of ceramics was also developed.

Many great works of pottery originated from the Han Dynasty. Other noblemen and Han emperors adorned their tombs with pottery that was made by warriors, concubines, and servants. Pottery was also used to make pieces of furniture and even toilets.

During this time, the loom was also invented. With loom, silk began to be woven by people for export trades.

Literature and Music

In addition to the arts during the Han Dynasty, literature became an integral part of the culture due to the invention of paper. A historian who was known as Sima Qian wrote a book of history which was the first account of Chinese history from the time of Huangdi-Emperor Wu.

The Music Bureau, or the Yuefu, began to gather and record some ceremonial songs and chants as well as ballads of popular people.

The Han Dynasty’s Greatness

Culture during the reign of the Han dynasty was important as it competed with the Roman culture’s beauty and grandiose. Indeed, the history of the Han dynasty culture is generally something that is still celebrated by the Chinese people because of the benefits and developments that it brought to the people.

Western Han Dynasty

During this era, the dark style of clothing was carried over from the Qin Dynasty where black was the preferred color. Court dress was black and during the sacrificial ceremonies, the formal dress was edged with red.

The clothing during this era was characterized by square sleeves, sloping necklines, red shoes, and a cicada-like hat. The high ranking officials and ordinary people typically wore the same style. The only way to differentiate different positions and ranks in the society was the color and quality of materials used in the clothing.

Eastern Han Dynasty

During this era, red was the color worn by the most respected people in society. This is because red symbolized the “fire virtue” of this dynasty. Government officials during this time wore clothes with colors that conformed to the current season.

During the spring months, a ceremony was held in the eastern suburbs. Clothes and carriages were gray in color during this celebration. During the summer months, a ceremony was held at the southern suburbs and the preferred color was red. During autumn, the color was yellow and when winter started, the people preferred black.

Types of Clothing

There were two main categories for clothing in this dynasty; Shenyi (long coat) or Yijin (this makes up the front of the jacket). Historians have said that only a few people wore Shenyi during the time period of the Eastern Han Dynasty.

Clothing for Women

The women during the Han Dynasty era wore long pants with long jackets. They also wore a long intricate belt in many cases. Their accessories were quite delicate and also very expensive. These conveyed the class a woman belonged to in this society.